A growing body of literature has documented myriad effects of human activities on animal
behaviour, yet the ultimate ecological consequences of these behavioural shifts remain …

Large carnivores are frequently presented as saviours of biodiversity and ecosystem
functioning through their creation of trophic cascades, an idea largely based on studies …

A “landscape of fear”(LOF) is a map that describes continuous spatial variation in an
animal's perception of predation risk. The relief on this map reflects, for example, places that …

Predator-prey interactions, including between large mammalian wildlife species, can be
represented as a “space race”, where prey try to minimize and predators maximize spatial …

Among agents of selection that shape phenotypic traits in animals, humans can cause more
rapid changes than many natural factors. Studies have focused on human selection of …

There is a growing theoretical basis for the role of predation risk as a driver of trophic
interactions, conceptualized as the 'ecology of fear'. However, current ungulate management …

Predators affect prey by killing them directly (lethal effects) and by inducing costly
antipredator behaviours in living prey (risk effects). Risk effects can strongly influence prey …

Roads are a prevalent, ever‐increasing form of human disturbance on the landscape. In
many places in western North America, energy development has brought human and road …

The theory of predation risk effects predicts behavioral responses in prey when risk of
predation is not homogenous in space and time. Prey species are often faced with a tradeoff …

Ecological theory predicts that the diffuse risk cues generated by wide‐ranging, active
predators should induce prey behavioural responses but not major, population‐or …