Alterations in the gut microbiota composition have been associated with a range of
neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative, and neuropsychiatric disorders. The gut microbes …

The brain has almost no energy reserve, but its activity coordinates organismal function, a
burden that requires precise coupling between neurotransmission and energy metabolism …

Astrocytes play key roles in the regulation of brain energy metabolism, which has a major
impact on brain functions, including memory, neuroprotection, resistance to oxidative stress …

No longer viewed as a metabolic waste product and cause of muscle fatigue, a
contemporary view incorporates the roles of lactate in metabolism, sensing and signaling in …

Mistakenly thought to be the consequence of oxygen lack in contracting skeletal muscle we
now know that the L-enantiomer of the lactate anion is formed under fully aerobic conditions …

The human gastrointestinal (gut) microbiota comprises diverse and dynamic populations of
bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, and protozoa, coexisting in a mutualistic relationship with …

Glucose is the long-established, obligatory fuel for brain that fulfills many critical functions,
including ATP production, oxidative stress management, and synthesis of neurotransmitters …

Once thought to be a waste product of anaerobic metabolism, lactate is now known to form
continuously under aerobic conditions. Shuttling between producer and consumer cells …

Astrocytes are neural cells of ectodermal, neuroepithelial origin that provide for homeostasis
and defense of the central nervous system (CNS). Astrocytes are highly heterogeneous in …

The CLDN5 gene encodes claudin-5 (CLDN-5) that is expressed in endothelial cells and
forms tight junctions which limit the passive diffusions of ions and solutes. The blood–brain …