The nature of the early martian climate is one of the major unanswered questions of
planetary science. Key challenges remain, but a new wave of orbital and in situ observations …

Clay minerals, recently discovered to be widespread in Mars's Noachian terrains, indicate
long-duration interaction between water and rock over 3.7 billion years ago. Analysis of how …

The Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), an instrument on the Mars Global Surveyor
spacecraft, has measured the topography, surface roughness, and 1.064‐μm reflectivity of …

Global mineralogical map** of Mars by the Observatoire pour la Mineralogie, l'Eau, les
Glaces et l'Activité (OMEGA) instrument on the European Space Agency's Mars Express …

Mars accumulated and differentiated into crust, mantle and core within a few tens of millions
of years of Solar System formation. Formation of Hellas, which has been adopted as the …

Reconciling the geology of Mars with models of atmospheric evolution remains a major
challenge. Martian geology is characterized by past evidence for episodic surface liquid …

Over the past 25 yr, the science of stratigraphy has evolved to include time-correlative data
from vastly disparate components of the Earth system. Not least of these is the global signal …

Martian valley networks have long been viewed as some of the best evidence of prolonged
surface water on Mars. Analysis from Viking data showed that valleys were primarily …

Observations of the Mars upper atmosphere made from the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile
Evolution (MAVEN) spacecraft have been used to determine the loss rates of gas from the …

Planetary Surface Processes is the first advanced textbook to cover the full range of geologic
processes that shape the surfaces of planetary-scale bodies. Using a modern, quantitative …